Swearer, Donald K. The Buddhist World of Southeast Asia: Second Edition, p. 164. Encyclopdia Britannica. In the 20th century, the vipassana movement grew into an international movement. Why Theravada? - Page 4 - Dhamma Wheel Buddhist Forum Both Mahyna and Theravda also provided a clear and important place for lay followers. Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study, p. 9. [17], Religious conflict among these sects was also not unusual. After 49 days of meditating under a bodhi tree, he became Buddha, or the "Awakened One." Buddhism later arrived in Thailand from Sri Lanka. "vanishing, quenching, blowing out"), a deathless (amata) and transcendent reality, which is a total and final release (vimutti) from all suffering (dukkha) and rebirth. [10], From the 5th century to the eleventh century, the island of Sri Lanka saw continuous warfare between Sinhala kings and south Indian invaders (mainly the Cholas, Pallavas and Pandyas). Buddhism has a long and rich history. [40] After independence, Myanmar held the Sixth Buddhist council (Vesak 1954 to Vesak 1956) to create a new redaction of the Pli Canon, which was then published by the government in 40 volumes. [10], Aided by the patronage of Mauryan kings like Ashoka, this school spread throughout India and reached Sri Lanka through the efforts of missionary monks like Mahinda. [155] In the Pli Nikayas, Jhnas are described as preceding the awakening insight of the Buddha, which turned him into an awakened being. The Vessantara Jtaka is one of the most popular of these. Most prominently, the anthropologist Melford Spiro in his work Buddhism and Society separated Burmese Theravda into three groups: Apotropaic Buddhism (concerned with providing protection from evil spirits), Kammatic Buddhism (concerned with making merit for a future birth), and Nibbanic Buddhism (concerned with attaining the liberation of Nibbana, as described in the Tipitaka). The impetus for this trend began in Myanmar and was supported by prime minister U Nu who himself established the International Meditation Center (IMC) in Yangon. [108] The vipassana movement arrived in Thailand in the 1950s. . These Burmese figures re-invented vipassana-meditation and developed simplified meditation techniques, based on the Satipatthana sutta, the Visuddhimagga, and other texts, emphasizing satipatthana and bare insight. In 1996, 11 selected Sri Lankan women were ordained fully as Theravda bhikkhunis by a team of Theravda monks in concert with a team of Korean nuns in India. These traditions are influenced by the older born kammahna forms. "[37] All Buddhist institutions had been severely damaged by the war with the Cholas, and the three main traditions had fragmented into eight sects. According to Theravada tradition, Mahadeva was the founder of Theravada Vinaya. It is primarily understood through the doctrine of kamma. One of these is keeping a Buddhist shrine with a picture or statue of the Buddha for devotional practice in one's home, mirroring the larger shrines at temples. Theravada means "doctrine (or teaching) of the elders." The school claims to be the oldest existing school of Buddhism. BUDDHISM IN LAOS | Facts and Details Oxford: Oxford University Press. [80] Part of the Buddhist modernist project was a reaction to the challenge and threat posed by Western colonialism and Christian missionaries.[81]. Some may decide to fast for days or stay at dangerous places where ferocious animals live in order to aid their meditation. [108] Since no dhamma exists independently, every single dhamma of consciousness, known as a citta, arises associated (sampayutta) with at least seven mental factors (cetasikas). [29], Abhayagiri was an influential university and center for the study of Mahyna and Vajrayana from the reign of Gajabahu I until the 12th century. If Buddhism is a Revealed Religion then the Words of its Founder are the primary source of all Wisdom, and any later additions are mere commentaries at best, heresies at worst. And it is designed to provide you fun and meaningful opportunities for guided and independent learning at your own pace and time. By the 18th, village monasteries were a common feature of every Burmese village and they became a main center of education. [194] These include social service and activist organizations such as the Young Men's Buddhist Association of Colombo, the All Ceylon Buddhist Congress, the Sarvodaya Shramadana of A. T. Ariyaratne, the NGO's founded by Sulak Sivaraksa such as Santi Pracha. Theravda Buddhist meditation practices or Bhavana (mental cultivation) are categorized into two broad categories: Samatha bhavana (calming), and Vipassan bhavana (investigation, insight). [45], The 20th century also saw the growth of "forest traditions" which focused on forest living and strict monastic discipline. Oct 1992. [6] According to the Theravada account, the third council also led to the split between the Sarvastivada and the Vibhajjavda schools on the issue of the existence of the three times. They are very popular among all classes and are rendered in a wide variety of media formats, from cartoons to high literature. [110] According to Ian Harris, contemporary Cambodian Theravda includes both "modernists" and "traditionalists". It was the first such ordination ever in the Western hemisphere. [32][33], The next influential figure in Sinhala Buddhism was Parkramabhu I (11531186) who unified the island and promoted extensive reform of what he saw as a divided and corrupt sangha. [74] By the late 17th century, an examination system for Buddhist monks had also been established by the Thai monarchy. Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study, pp. Theravada Buddhism Community. Burma also saw the growth of the "Vipassana movement", which focused on reviving Buddhist meditation and doctrinal learning. The Buddhist religion itself does not seem to have established undisputed authority until the reigns of Dutthagamani and Vattagamani (c. mid-2nd century BCE to mid-1st century BCE)[10], According to K. M. de Silva, Buddhism was well established in the main settlements of the Kingdom of Anuradhapura by the first century BCE. Theravda Buddhism | Buddho.org This has led in some quarters to a playing down of older non-empirical elements of Theravda, associated with 'superstition'. [175] Buddhaghosa's work drew heavily on the Pali suttas as well as the Pali Abhidhamma. [7][8], Fueled by Mauryan patronage, the Vibhajjavdins spread out throughout India. The community of monastics is seen as the most meritorious field of karmic fruitfulness. [web 1], From the 8th to the 12th centuries, Indian religions (including Mahyna, Vajrayana and Theravda as well as Hinduism) continued to influence Southeast Asia via the Bay of Bengal. Particularly in rural areas, temporary ordination of boys and young men traditionally offered peasant boys an opportunity to receive free education in temple schools with sponsorship and accommodation. 4. [20][21], Epigraphical evidence has established that Theravda Buddhism became a dominant religion in the Southeast Asian kingdoms of Sri Ksetra and Dvaravati from about the 5th century CE onwards. (A Concise History of Buddhism, 1994.) Theravdins believe that every individual is personally responsible for achieving his or her own self-awakening and liberation, each being responsible for his or her own karma (actions and consequences). The Visuddhimagga, a Sinhala Theravda doctrinal summa written in the fifth century by Buddhaghosa, became the orthodox account of the Theravda path to liberation in Sri Lanka after the 12th century and this influence spread to other Theravda nations. [19], Later developments included the formation and recording of the Theravda commentary literature (Atthakatha). This module will let you know about the brief history, core teachings, fundamental beliefs, practices, and related issues of Comparative Analysis of Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. Buddhist institutions suffered terribly during these various invasions and conflicts. Sla, meaning moral conduct, is mainly defined as right speech, right action, and right livelihood. Buddhist forms of chanting is also widely practiced by both monks and laypersons, who may recite famous phrases such as the taking of refuge, the Metta Sutta and the Mangala Sutta in front of their shrine. [47] While the Khmer Rouge effectively destroyed Cambodia's Buddhist institutions, after the end of the communist regime the Cambodian Sangha was re-established by monks who had returned from exile. [102][86] Mongkut led a reform movement and founded a new monastic order called the Dhammayuttika Nikaya. Potter, Buswell, Jaini; Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies Volume VII Abhidharma Buddhism to 150 AD, p. 121. The Mahvihra tradition would not regain its dominant position until the Polonnaruwa period in 1055. Rejoicing in merit of good deeds done by others, this is common in communal activities. [17], The Sri Lankan Buddhist Sangha initially preserved the Buddhist scriptures (the Tipitaka) orally as it had been traditionally done in India. Several sets of precepts or moral trainings (sikkhpada) guide right action. Once they had undergone their initial ordination as young men, Laotian men were permitted to temporarily ordain again at any time, though married men were expected to seek their wife's permission. [106], In the early 1900s, Thailand's Ajahn Sao Kantaslo and his student, Mun Bhuridatta, led the Thai Forest Tradition revival movement which focused on forest monasticism, and strict adherence to the vinaya. [206] In Tibet there is currently no bhikkhuni ordination, but the Dalai Lama has authorized followers of the Tibetan tradition to be ordained as nuns in traditions that have such ordination. [47][48] Starting at around the 11th century, Sinhalese Theravada monks and Southeast Asian elites led a widespread conversion of most of mainland Southeast Asia to the Theravda Mahavihara school.[49]. A 55-year-old Thai Buddhist 8-precept white-robed maechee nun, Varanggana Vanavichayen, became the first woman to receive the going-forth ceremony of a novice (and the gold robe) in Thailand, in 2002. [129] During this time, there was also a movement to introduce a Vietnamese form of Theravda. The collection covers a large range of topics, from childrens books to art and history, spanning Mayahayana, Theravada and other Buddhist traditions. Japan is a special case as, although it has neither the bhikkhuni nor novice ordinations, the precept-holding nuns who live there do enjoy a higher status and better education than their precept-holder sisters elsewhere, and can even become Zen priests. It can also be found sprinkled earlier in this text as on p. 18 (I, 39, v. 2) and p. 39 (I, 107). [107], The Theravda Abhidhamma holds that there is a total of 82 possible types of dhammas, 81 of these are conditioned (sankhata), while one is unconditioned, which is nibbana. Outside of this system of samsara is nibbana (lit. General Theravda discussion. He stresses that all three are firmly rooted in the Pli Canon. [210] [78] Lao kings like Vixun (r. 1500 - 1520) adopted the Dharma king model of Theravda Buddhism, promoted the establishment of temples (such as Vat Simuang and Pha That Luang) and palladiums (sacred protectors) such as Phra Bang. [72] These differences arose from the systematization and historical development of doctrines and monasticism in the centuries after the death of the Buddha. Mahavamsa), hagiographies, practice manuals, textbooks, poetry, and doctrinal summaries of Theravada Abhidhamma, such as the Abhidhammavatara. This language may have evolved out of various Indian dialects, and is related to, but not the same as, the ancient language of Magadha. H-Tng (Vansarakkhita), who had been educated in Cambodia and later helped establish the first ethnic Vietnamese Theravda temple in H Ch Minh City, Bu Quang (Ratana Ramsyarama, ets. [85], Most Theravda Buddhists generally consider Mahyna Buddhist scriptures to be apocryphal, meaning that they are not authentic words of the Buddha. Good actions lead one to the higher realms, bad actions lead to the lower realms. In the Sukhothai Kingdom (13th-15th century), Theravda, Mahyna, as well as Khmer Brahmanism were all practiced at first. Some Western scholars have erroneously tried to claim that Mahyna is primarily a religion for laymen and Theravda is a primarily monastic religion. However, it has recently also begun to spread to other ethnic groups as well. Theravada Buddhism has been the Cambodian state religion since the 13th century (except during the Khmer Rouge period). The prtimoka of the nun's order in East Asian Buddhism is the Dharmaguptaka, which is different from the prtimoka of the current Theravda school; the specific ordination of the early Sangha in Sri Lanka not known, although the Dharmaguptaka sect originated with the Sthvirya as well. [73], The Abhidhamma-pitaka contains "a restatement of the doctrine of the Buddha in strictly formalized language." [126] Like all Chinese religions, Theravda suffered from persecution during the Cultural Revolution, but since the 1980s it experienced a revival, with new temples and educational institutions being founded (such as the Buddhist Institute of Yunnan). In the Buddhist society of Sri Lanka, most monks spend hours every day in taking care of the needs of lay people such as preaching bana,[205] accepting alms, officiating funerals, teaching dhamma to adults and children in addition to providing social services to the community. [114] The sangha was re-organized as the Lao United Buddhists Association, which was controlled directly by the communist party. [42][43] The Dhammayuttika movement was characterized by an emphasis on the original Pali Canon and a rejection of Thai folk beliefs which were seen as irrational. This event is known as Dhamma Chakka-Pavattana, which means turning the wheel of dharma. The 20th-century Nepalese Theravda movement which introduced Theravda Buddhism to Nepal and was led by prominent figures such as Dharmaditya Dharmacharya, Mahapragya, Pragyananda and Dhammalok Mahasthavir. [77] However some scholars, such as Frauwallner, also hold that the early Abhidhamma texts developed out of exegetical and catechetical work which made use of doctrinal lists which can be seen in the suttas, called matikas.[78][79]. The introduction of Theravda to other Southeast Asian nations like Singapore, The return of Western Theravdin monks trained in the Thai Forest Tradition to western countries and the subsequent founding of monasteries led by western monastics, such as. [1] For many centuries, Theravada has been the predominant . [82] In response to this, Buddhist organizations were founded which sought to preserve Buddhist scholarship and provide a Buddhist education. A Buddha is also believed to have extraordinary powers and abilities (abhi), such as the ability to read minds and fly through the air. Generosity (Dna); This typically involves providing monks with "the four requisites"; food, clothing, shelter, and medicine; however, giving to charity and the needy is also considered dna. "[176] In spite of the novel elements in this meditation tradition, close study of born kammahna texts reveals that they are closely connected to Theravada Abhidhamma and the works of Buddhaghosa. Those of a passionate disposition (or those who enter the path by faith) attain Arahatship through vipassan preceded by samatha. late 13th century) was instrumental in the rise of Theravda Buddhism as the predominant religion of Burma and Thailand. [9], Theravda is descended from the ancient Tmraparya sect, which means "the Sri Lankan lineage". Theravada, (Pali: "Way of the Elders") major form of Buddhism prevalent in Sri Lanka (Ceylon), Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos. Q2- Lecture- Iwrbs - Module 9: Theravada Buddhism THERAVADA BUDDHISM [30] Throughout its history, Abhayagiri was an influential center of scholarship, with numerous scholars working in Sanskrit and Pli. Theravada is a sect of Buddhism, and means "Teaching of the Elders." It focuses primarily on meditation, and seeking to break from the wheel of suffering and entering into Nirvana. [71] For example, while the Theravda Vinaya contains a total of 227 monastic rules for bhikkhus, the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (used in East Asian Buddhism) has a total of 253 rules for bhikkhus (though the overall structure is the same). Theravada Buddhism is strongest in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos and Burma (Myanmar). Paul Williams also notes that the Abhidhamma remains focused on the practicalities of insight meditation and leaves ontology "relatively unexplored". [citation needed], If men and women born in Western countries, who become Buddhists as adults, wish to become monks or nuns, it is possible, and one can live as a monk or nun in the country they were born in, seek monks or nuns gathered in a different Western country, or move to a monastery in countries like Sri Lanka or Thailand. [196] The ascetic focused monks were known by the names Pamsukulikas (rag robe wearers) and Araikas (forest dwellers). The Revival of Buddhism in Indo-Bangla Territory: A New Perspective. In recent years it has emerged that there is still extant a relatively high number of manuals and related texts pertaining to a system of meditation called among other things born kammahna or yogvacara. [177] Modernist reforms which emphasized Pali Canon study, a shift in state support to other traditions and modern wars in Indochina led to this tradition's decline, and it now only survives in a few Cambodian and Thai temples.[178]. Part of this was due to the immigration from Theravda majority countries, but there were also missionary attempts to establish the religion among locals, such as the Buddhist Missionary Society Malaysia founded by Ven K. Sri Dhammananda. There are no known artistic or architectural remains from this epoch except for the cave dwellings of the monks, reflecting the growth and spread of the new religion. Theravada clergy include monks and nuns. :: What is Theravada Buddhism? :: :: PavelBure guide by article: by They were basically self sufficient economic units under the protection of the Sinahala monarchs. Buddhaghosa (c. 5th century), the most important Abhidharma scholar of Theravda Buddhism, presenting three copies of the Visuddhimagga. In Myanmar and Thailand, the monastery was and is still regarded as a seat of learning. During the second half of the 1st millennium ce, a third major Buddhist movement, Vajrayana (Sanskrit: "Diamond Vehicle"; also called Tantric, or Esoteric, Buddhism), developed in India. In return for this charity, they are expected to lead exemplary lives. The term "Historical Buddha" (Sakyamuni Buddha) refers to the Buddha Siddhattha Gotama, the founder of Buddhism, who was born in North India some 2,500 years ago (around 600 BC) and whose authentic teaching has lived on to this day, mainly through Theravada Buddhism. Free postage. Dedication of merit; doing good deeds in the name of someone who has passed away or in the name of all sentient beings. Majjhima Nikaya, Sutta No. [129] Under French Colonial rule, Vietnamese Khmers could now practice freely and receive a Theravda education in government schools. Dharmapala appealed to laypersons, providing them with a national identity and a modern religious practice. Theravda Buddhist meditation practice varies considerably in technique and objects. Buddhism in Thailand, is largely based on the Theravada tradition of Buddhism. [89] From the 1950s onwards, the Sri Lankan Forest Tradition developed into an influential modern tradition, focused on strict monastic discipline, meditation and forest living. [65] The Pli Abhidhamma was not recognized outside the Theravda school. Washington (D.C.) Buddhist Vihara founded first Theravada monastic community in the USA. Rebuilding Buddhism: The Theravada Movement in Twentie by Sarah Le Vine New Book. Check Price at Amazon. Taylor, J.L. They promoted the building of new temples, patronized scholarship, monastic ordinations and missionary works as well as attempted to eliminate certain non-Buddhist practices like animal sacrifices. I began my studies in an honors degree in philosophy at McMaster University in Canada at the end of the 1950s. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Theravada&oldid=1136577271, The 20th-century Nepalese Theravda movement which introduced Theravda Buddhism to, The establishment of some of the first Theravda Viharas in the Western world, such as the. The perceived decline of Buddhism among the Burmese people led to a revival movement which took many forms including the foundation of lay Buddhist organizations and the founding of new Buddhist schools. Mundane wisdom is the insight in the three marks of existence. [115] During the late 1980s and 1990s, the official attitudes towards Buddhism began to liberalise and there was a resurgence of traditional Buddhist activity such as merit making and doctrinal study.[116]. The eighth and final step of the Eightfold Path, Right Samadhi, is often defined as the four jhanas. Many Theravada Buddhists follow the. The most distinctive features of this phase and virtually the only contemporary historical material, are the numerous Brahmi inscriptions associated with these caves. "[193], In the modern era, it is now common for lay disciples to practice meditation, attend lay meditation centers and even aim for awakening. Some Theravda Buddhist countries appoint or elect a sangharaja, or Supreme Patriarch of the Sangha, as the highest ranking or seniormost monk in a particular area, or from a particular nikaya. [17] While the Abhayagiri sect became known for the syncretic study of Mahayana and Vajrayana texts, as well as the Theravda canon, the Mahvihra tradition, did not accept these new scriptures. 55, no. Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study, pp. Buddhism in Vietnam - Buddhism - Oxford Bibliographies - obo They rejected the concept of "Sanghyang Adi Buddha" that was promoted by Jinarakkhita in order to bring Buddhism into line with the government policy of Pancasila (the first plank of this was belief in one god). [198] This second division has traditionally been seen as corresponding with the city forest split, with the city monks focusing on the vocation of books (ganthadhura) or learning (pariyatti) while the forest monks leaning more towards meditation (vipassanadhura) and practice (patipatti). [48] In contrast, communist rule in Laos was less destructive since the Pathet Lao sought to make use of the sangha for political ends by imposing direct state control. According to Ian Harris, by the time Jayavarmadiparamesvara took the throne in 1327, Theravda was well established in the kingdom, as is attested by statuary which survives from this era.[65]. [166] This noticing is accompanied by reflections on causation and other Buddhist teachings, leading to insight into dukkha, anatta, and anicca. [183] In Sri Lanka, the new Buddhist traditions of the Amarapura and Rmaa Nikyas developed their own meditation forms based on the Pali Suttas, the Visuddhimagga, and other manuals, while born kammahna mostly disappeared by the end of the 19th century. "Abhayagiri". [104], According to Ronkin, the canonical Pli Abhidhamma remains pragmatic and psychological, and "does not take much interest in ontology" in contrast with the Sarvastivada tradition. Free Postage. [105] He was the leading intellectual of the era and his doctrinal interpretations remain the orthodox Thai Buddhist doctrine. Thai men who have ordained as a monk may be seen as more mature and suitable husbands by Thai women, who refer to men who have served as monks with a colloquial term meaning "ripe" to indicate that they are more mature and ready for marriage. by Siddhartha Gautama (the "Buddha"), is an important religion in most of the countries of Asia. [web 9] Originally these referred to effects or qualities of meditation, but after the time of Buddhaghosa, they also referred to two distinct meditation types or paths (yna). Theravada Buddhism | A Social History from Ancient Benares to Modern C Notable 20th century forest Ajahns included Ajahn Thate, Ajahn Maha Bua and Ajahn Chah.[107]. Tambapaiya (and later as Mahvihravsins), Buddhist cosmology of the Theravada school, Criticism of Buddhism Women in Buddhism. Who Founded Mahayana Buddhism? - Learn Religions [41], After the reign of Parkramabhu I, the island saw further waves of Indian invaders, forcing the Sinhala monarchs to retreat to the south again. [172], The practice of Theravda meditation can be traced back to the 5th century exegete Buddhaghosa, who systematized the classic Theravda meditation, dividing them into samatha and vipassana types and listing 40 different forms (known as "kammahnas", "workplaces") in his magnum opus, the Visuddhimagga. [195], Theravda sources dating back to medieval Sri Lanka (2nd century BCE to 10th century CE) such as the Mahavamsa show that monastic roles in the tradition were often seen as being in a polarity between urban monks (Sinhala: khaamawaasii, Pli: gmavas) on one end and rural forest monks (Sinhala: aranyawaasii, Pali: araavasi, nagaravasi, also known as Tapassin) on the other. In western countries it is complemented with the four divine abidings, the development of loving-kindness and compassion. Forest Monks and the Nation-state: An Anthropological and Historical Study, p. 12. In fact, today about half of the primary schools in Thailand are located in monasteries. View. He visited Indonesia 15 times from 1934 to 1983 and brought Bodhi trees to be planted at Borobudur and Watu Gong Vihara (central Java). (2010). While the precise details about the origins of Buddhism in Vietnam are still unclear, presumably coming to that country from India and Central Asia, textual and archaeological evidence suggests the presence of a Buddhist center in northern Vietnam (Red River Delta) by the 2nd century CE.In the centuries that followed, Buddhism in Vietnam remained predominantly Mahayana, but of . Tiyavanich, Kamala, nForest Recollections: Wandering Monks in Twentieth-Century Thailand p1. [63] The Late Angkorian period saw beginning of the rise of Theravda Buddhism, though details are scarce. Some of these practices are still prevalent in Cambodia and Laos today. [194] According to Donald K Swearer, another development in modern Theravda is "the formation of lay Buddhist associations that have partially assumed the social service responsibilities formerly associated with the monastery". According to Peter Harvey, while the Theravdans may have added texts to their Tipiaka (such as the Abhidhamma texts and so on), they generally did not tamper with the earlier material. He conquered Kalinga, but seeing the mass slaughter brought him to his senses. They are seen as the mythical founders of Buddhism in Sri Lanka, a story which scholars suggest helps to legitimize Theravda's claims of being the oldest and most authentic school.[5]. [199] Forest monks tend to be the minority among Theravda sanghas and also tend to focus on asceticism (dhutanga) and meditative praxis. Mahayana didn't emerge as a distinctive school until early in the first millennium CE. Eminent lamas have established monasteries in the Himalayan region, which has become a very important centre for Tibetan Buddhism. In 2009 in Australia four women received bhikkhuni ordination as Theravda nuns, the first time such ordination had occurred in Australia. [56], An early form of the Tipiaka may have been transmitted to Sri Lanka during the reign of Ashoka, which saw a period of Buddhist missionary activity. The Pli Dhammapada Commentary mentions another split based on the "duty of study" and the "duty of contemplation". {11; and Bhavana Society Brochure} ca. The various responses to this encounter have been called "Buddhist modernism". [1] For many centuries it has been the main religion of Sri Lanka (now about 70% of the population [2]) and most of continental Southeast Asia ( Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand ). How I Became a Theravada Buddhist - Buddhistdoor Global View our Buddha Statues from all around the world. Theravada-buddhalaisuus on vanhin nykypiviin asti selvinnyt varhaisbuddhalainen koulukunta. In Sri Lanka caste plays a major role in the division into nikayas. The French set up institutions for the training of Cambodian and Lao monks, such as the Ecole de Pali which was founded in Phnom Penh in 1914. After being orally transmitted (as was the custom for religious texts in those days) for some centuries, the texts were finally committed to writing in the 1st century BCE. As Bhikkhu Bodhi notes, "The Suttas and commentaries do record a few cases of lay disciples attaining the final goal of Nirvana. Ronkin, Noa, Early Buddhist Metaphysics: The Making of a Philosophical Tradition (Routledge curzon Critical Studies in Buddhism) 2011, pp. Many monks were killed, forced to disrobe or flee while numerous temples were destroyed.